Category: Literary Criticism

Critical analysis of books and short stories

Drunk on Nature in Dickinson’s World

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I read aloud this poem several times before any sort of meaning emerged. Interpreting poetry is still a weakness of mine, but I think I have deciphered a bit about Dickinson’s poem.

The poem inspired by this critical analysis essay:

A poem by Emily Dickinson, known by its first line, “I taste a liquor never brewed.”

I taste a liquor never brewed —
From Tankards scooped in Pearl —
Not all the Vats upon the Rhine
Yield such an Alcohol!

Inebriate of Air — am I —
And Debauchee of Dew —
Reeling — thro endless summer days —
From inns of Molten Blue —

When “Landlords” turn the drunken Bee
Out of the Foxglove’s door —
When Butterflies — renounce their “drams”
I shall but drink the more!

Till Seraphs swing their snowy Hats —
And Saints — to windows run —
To see the little Tippler
Leaning against the — Sun —

First, the form, particularly how each line is either punctuated by dashes or rolls into the next line, is essential to realize connections between stanzas. There is an unmistakable rhythm and musicality that is pleasant to the ear, but more importantly, the long stops serve to showcase how nature is a central theme in the poem. Resting on “Dew”, “Butterflies”, “Inebriate of Air” especially… this emphasis on key nature-derived phrases paints a picture that the writer is not inebriated by alcohol, which one would assume if a person is drunk: “Not all the Vats upon the Rhine/Yield such an Alcohol”. Note the capitalization of Vats and Alcohol, drawing attention to the inadequacy of man-made liquor.

Second, the narrator is inebriated by nature itself, demonstrated by numerous metaphors throughout the entirety of the poem. The “Landlords” turn the drunken Bee out of Foxglove, a flower, while Butterflies abandon their “drams” (a medieval liquor flask), which allows the writer to drink all the more. She — presumably she, since we don’t know if the narrator is Dickinson herself, is drunk on summer days, reveling in her mirth as a “Debauchee of Dew”, which sends her “Reeling”, out of control, until the Seraphs (angels) of winter interrupt her drunken state.

I have discovered at least one interpretation of this poem, but I am sure there are many others unknown to me. I am stuck on the last stanza’s meaning and significance, and I have yet to figure out what happens to the writer in the end. What consequences might she suffer? I cannot uncover the meaning of the last three lines: “And Saints — to windows run –/To see the little Tippler/Leaning against the — Sun –“. I sense the results of the narrator’s actions are present in these lines, but the meaning is unclear to me.

If this poem were to reveal the inner mindset of Emily Dickinson, I would say that it suggests she would find herself among the naturalist writers of the 19th century, like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. She doesn’t state, necessarily, the importance of communing with nature, or preserving it, but instead becoming completely entranced by it. If you’ve ever stood on the grass, in the sunlight, focusing on nothing but the sun’s rays beating down on you, you can feel the power of nature – how it fills you with unencumbered joy and a sense of wonderment, how it makes you feel stronger and more aware of your natural surroundings, while the man-made world seems dim and gray in comparison. This is what I think of as I read her words. Nature is so potent that one can become drunk on the dew. If I were to guess at the idea presented here by Dickinson, broken down into its simplest form, it would be “Nature trumps civilization.”

 

*I feel it is my responsibility to note the possibility of bias on my part in this interpretation because I subscribe to the transcendental, naturalist view of the above mentioned writers. I may be attributing ideas to Dickinson that are of my own design, but I have attempted to read this poem with an open mind and no predetermined expectations.

 

Establishing narrator trustworthiness before the first chapter

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The foreword in A Princess of Mars functions much like the introduction by Charles Edward Prendick in The Island of Dr. Moreau or the preface in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.

The writer of the foreword relays memories of his youth, especially those of his uncle, Captain Jack Carter, that lend credibility to the fantastic story about to be unveiled. Captain Jack wrote tales beyond even the plausible, requiring a great suspension of disbelief. Yet, we are brought into his world and are prone to believe he is trustworthy as the narrator of his autobiography because the completely believable and sensible writer of the foreword, Edgar Rice Burroughs, “Captain Jack’s favorite of the younger generation of Carters”, and subsequent author of the novel, has vouched for him.

Captain Jack explains that he does not seek the adulation of the public and is convinced that most will not believe his extraordinary tales: he knows his revelations sound unbelievable. It is his insistence that he presents his manuscript only as a way to help foster understanding of a foreign world — knowledge which he has gained and wishes to share, rather than expecting reliance on pure belief, that makes us trust his character. We believe he is telling the truth because he is so forward regarding his intentions and requires his nephew to follow detailed instructions for the manuscript’s release, prior to which great pains were taken to sequester his manuscript.

The manuscript was released only after Captain Jack’s definitive “demise”, of which he took exceptional precautions to ensure that this would be his last death: he insisted the younger Carter must wait 11 years before even opening the manuscript and a total of 21 years before submitting it for further readership, leading us to believe in its inherent importance.

Despite how fanciful the story may be, reliable narrators can lead us valiantly into unimaginable, and otherwise unbelievable, fantasy realms.

 

(1) Burroughs, Edgar Rice. The Princess of Mars. Publisher and page number unknown (online copy linked from Coursera course, Fantasy and Science Fiction: The Human Mind, Our Modern World). Citation can be found in the foreword.

Poe’s Tales of Madness May Actually Be Neurological Conditions

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“The Black Cat” is an extension of “The Tell-Tale Heart”; therefore we can extrapolate knowledge from one work to the other to gain a fuller understanding of the conditions affecting these men.

The focus on the eye: “…a pale blue eye, with a film over it”[i] of the old man contrasted with the loss of the first cat’s eye in “The Black Cat”, followed by the missing eye of the second cat, symbolizes a threat to the horrors that lie within these men’s psyches.

Both men are overtaken by righteous rage, based on their own rambling reasoning, and they are relieved upon completion of the murders. Such is their confidence that they committed the perfect murders that one buries his victim under the planks and proceeds to sit over the spot while conversing with the officers, while the other buries his wife (and cat) within the cellar wall and even “rapped heavily with a cane”[ii] on the newly bricked wall to show off the sturdy construction.

These bold actions culminate when one hears, in his own head, the beating of the old man’s heart, like a watch muffled by cotton, continually getting louder until he must confess, while the other man hears “a cry, at first muffled and broken”[iii] until it becomes “… a wailing shriek,”[iv] audible to the astounded officers. Unlike “The Tell-Tale Heart”, it is not the man’s guilt in that brings about justice, but the feared cat which condemns him, bringing his fear to fruition.

 “The Tell-Tale Heart” begins with the narrator asserting that he is no madman and that the unspecified disease had sharpened his senses. “The Black Cat” refers repeatedly to the narrator’s alcoholism and increasingly altered and rather abruptly changed demeanor. The distinct behavioral changes, the heightened paranoia, and the calculated cover-ups suggest that these men suffer from an anti-inhibitory neurological condition unknown to 19th century science, which was then presumed to be madness.

 

 

[i] The Complete Tales and Poems of Edgar Allan Poe. Random House, New York. 1975. p. 303

[ii] See above, p. 230

[iii] See above, p. 230

[iv] See above, p. 230

Frankenstein’s Structure Creates a Never-Ending Cycle

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Frankenstein has a cyclic structure demonstrated through parallelism and foreshadowing. Walton’s letters to his sister showcase two men possessed with such lofty goals that even death would not diminish their greatness. Walton’s obsession with finding a new passage through the Arctic mirrors Frankenstein’s obsession with immortality. As Victor’s journey comes to an end, Walton’s has just begun.

Walton “elevates [Victor]… above any other person”, encompassing “extraordinary merit”[i] , which foreshadows Frankenstein’s desire as Creator, which had been at the heart of his studies since childhood.

Foreshadowing is a key element in the early chapters of Victor’s story, with the often repeated word animation, along with numerous references to life, death, and celestial objects: “…guardian angel of my life… Destiny… an omen”[ii], “Angel of Destruction”[iii] and “…such the words of fate, enounced to destroy me…”[iv]  Frankenstein wishes to control heaven and earth, and in his Herculean quest, he ignores nature and family, his singular ties to reality: “… the same feelings which made me neglect the scenes around me caused me also to forget those friends…”[v] . Through his recollection to Walton, Victor reveals that the inevitability of his disastrous path occurs before the monster ever awakens. This tale must end in horror, shown not only through Victor’s allusions, but because he appears on the brink of death at Walton’s first encounter.

This ultimate irony is only recognizable by those who know the tale’s end before the stranger ever speaks, an impossibility whose significance cannot be appreciated by the characters, but which reflects the novel’s cyclic nature:

“We attempted to carry him… [and] he fainted. We accordingly brought him back to the deck, and restored him to animation by rubbing him with brandy…”[vi]

In a true reversal of structure, the novel begins near the end and ends shortly after it began, with despair as the only constant, and an ever-present cycle of beginning and end, life and death.

 

[i] Frankenstein, second edition, with Case Studies in Contemporary Criticism, including both the 1831 and 1818 introductions by Mary and Percy Shelley, respectively, Edited by Johanna M. Smith, p. 39

[ii] Frankenstein, p. 49

[iii] Frankenstein, p. 51

[iv] Frankenstein, p. 53

[v] Frankenstein, p. 59

[vi] Frankenstein, pp. 35 and 36

Animals: Symbols between humanity and the Devil in Dracula

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Animals are essential to set the scene, as well as the tone of the novel, which blurs the lines between humans, animals, and the Devil.

The references, ‘serpentine’ path and the peasant’s cart with “its long, snakelike vertebrae”[i] , introduce the Devil, foreshadowing future events while reinforcing what Harker overhears before he leaves Bistritz: “Satan”, “Hell”, and “werewolf or vampire”[ii].  Serpent symbolism appears when the Count mentions, “I love the shade and the shadow,”[iii] (because [serpents] inhabit shady places[iv] ) and because Dracula moves about the castle unnoticed (“Serpens” refers to “creep[ing] by secret approaches”[v] ).

At the Pass, the coachman’s eyes gleam red, like a rat, which symbolizes death, decay, and destruction[vi], and is amplified when a passenger whispers, “For the dead travel fast.”[vii]

Wolves howl frequently and circle the caleche, symbolizing their cunning and cruel nature[viii], yet the coachman inexplicably controls them. The Count personifies them as “the children of the night”[ix] and notes that city dwellers couldn’t understand the “feelings of the hunter,”[x] foreshadowing Dracula as a hunter.

Dracula, with his long, fine, sharply pointed nails suggesting claws, hairs on his palms, the pointed tops of his ears, his “canine teeth”[xi], and his squat fingers suggesting paws (“Lupus, a wolf [comes] from ‘Lion-paws’”[xii] ), results in a wolf-like appearance. “The Devil bears the similitude of a wolf… looking… with his evil eye… darkly prowling… the faithful… that he may… ruin their souls”[xiii], and all companions Harker encounters cross themselves, present crucifixes, and ward off the ‘evil eye’.

It is noteworthy that at this time, werewolves and vampires seem almost interchangeable, as Stoker’s physical description of Dracula resembles a werewolf, and only his colorless pallor represents the classic vampire. Therefore, animalistic appearance or behavior symbolizes ever-increasing evil, which conversely puts the heroes in a virtuous state, despite their manic behavior.

[i] Bram Stoker, Dracula, published 1897, p.8

[ii] Dracula, p.6

[iii] Dracula, p.24

[iv] The Book of Beasts, Being a Translation from the Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century, Edited by T.H. White, p.165

[v] The Book of Beasts, p.165

[vi] Signs and Symbols: An Illustrated Guide to Their Origins and Meanings, DK Publishing, p. 53

[vii] Dracula, p.10

[viii] Signs and Symbols, p.32

[ix] Dracula, p.19

[x] Dracula, p.19

[xi] Dracula, p.22

[xii] The Book of Beasts, p.56

[xiii] The Book of Beasts, p.59

Alice as an Allegory for Victorian Society

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Alice is a multi-tiered allegory for Victorian life, just as The Wizard of Oz is an allegory for the economic and socio-political times of 19th century America.  Both stories feature young girls who lose their way and end up in a land that doesn’t make sense,[1] from which they “awake” after their adventures, suggesting that their dreamlands are idealized places. Alice even remarks, “What a wonderful dream it had been.”[2]

Hatters went insane due to prolonged exposure to mercury vapors during the felting process: “Erratic, flamboyant behavior was one of the most evident alterations caused by mercury,”[3] so the Mad Hatter is based in reality. The similarity between the two stories, along with a seed of truth in Alice, shows that there is more to the story than nonsensical language and tangential off-shoots. Lauren Millikan, in her senior project[4], identifies numerous allegories.[5] Historical interpretations include:

Political (International expansion led to violence and fear of the monarchy, as reflected in the Queen’s behavior [Queen Victoria], who constantly proclaims, “Off with their heads”.)

Colonial (Alice misunderstands the native culture, frequently insulting the animals, “I wish the creatures wouldn’t be so easily offended!”[6] and insisting on proper etiquette.)

Math (As a mathematician, Carroll loved puzzles, games, and mind teasers[7], which are prevalent in Alice: “Why is a raven like a writing desk?”[8] )

Science (Darwin’s findings[9] are referenced as animals appear out of the water i.e. Alice’s tears[10], which suggests that Alice is god-like in this new world, especially during times of growth, and culminates with her boldness during the trial[11])

Humanity (The mistreatment of children and the mentally ill were prevalent in Victorian society, “’…an insane person was “appropriated” to the status of a child, which was an improvement over the status of animal.’[12] Although, considering the marginal identity of children, this still kept them on the furthest edges of society”[13]. The Duchess and her “child”, who becomes a pig, showcase this injustice.)

[1] My husband pointed out this similarity.

[2] Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, 1985 edition, page 144

[3]  http://corrosion-doctors.org/Elements-Toxic/Mercury-mad-hatter.htm

[4] “Curiouser and Curiouser, The Evolution of Wonderland”, Lauren Millikan http://www.carleton.edu/departments/ENGL/Alice/index.html

[5] Other theories on Millikan’s site: http://www.carleton.edu/departments/ENGL/Alice/criticism.html

[6] Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, 1985 edition, page 59

[7] Charles Lutwidge Dodgson biography, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Dodgson.html

[8] Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, 1985 edition, page 79

[9] Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859.

[10] Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, 1985 edition, page 32

[11] Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll, 1985 edition, pp. 136 – 144

[12] Jan Gordon citation: http://www.carleton.edu/departments/ENGL/Alice/Footbibliography.html#gordon

[13]  http://www.carleton.edu/departments/ENGL/Alice/CritVict.html

Grimm’s Fairy Tales and Their Relation to Classic Mythology Revisited

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After my essay was peer reviewed by a few particularly astute students, I felt the need to improve my original work, so I am reposting this essay with several important changes, hopefully resulting in a more focused and accurate essay.

 

“The Wolf and the Seven Little Goats” is a prime example of why fairy tales continue to fascinate us. These tales are rich with symbolism and echo mythological constructs.  Six of the seven little kids were swallowed whole by the wolf, only to be cut out by the mother, after which they leapt out, unharmed. This is reminiscent of the origin story for the Greek gods, in which Cronus, a Titan, was “told by Earth and starry Sky that he was destined to be overcome by his own son,” as punishment because he had cut open his father, Sky, with a sickle, despite Cronus acting out his mother’s wishes. Cronus swallows his own children whole to avoid this fate. Zeus’ mother conspires to save her child, so she “wrapped a huge stone in… blankets… [and Cronus] swallowed it…” Cronus’ other children were then freed from his belly.

 

In this regard, we can view the wolf as a father figure, since the mother conspires with her youngest child to free the other children by cutting open the wolf and replacing them with rocks. When the wolf falls into the water, drowning with the weight of the stones in his belly, this act signifies a transition of power as the wolf is no longer feared or holds power over the people. In essence, the kids are now in power. The act of son overtaking father, allowing for the transition of power, is a key aspect of mythology, as suggested by Joseph Campbell, who looks at the psychological significance of myths which pervade every society.

 

These stories stay with us as a universal constant because they put into words our fears and hopes. The Grimm brothers exemplify the oral mythological tradition by their use of symbolism, which is essential to the transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next.

 

Works Cited

The World of Myth, an anthology, by David Adams Leeming
The Power of Myth with Bill Moyers by Joseph Campbell (originally produced in a series of interviews)
Signs and Symbols, An Illustrated Guide to Their Origins and Meanings, published by DK Publishing in 2008 (no author listed)

The Knight of the Cart: the story of Lancelot and Guinevere

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This is my peer assignment for week 5 of Magic in the Middle Ages. I have expounded upon it a little bit and did some minor editing, as I wrote the original draft of 433 words in about 15 minutes.

Reflect about the following aspects of  The Knight of the Cart by Chrétien de Troyes and write a short essay about it (950-1200 characters, about 200 words).

This romance is about an adulterous relationship between Lancelot and the queen. As we have mentioned in this week’s videos, there are two knights who depart from Arthur’s court in order to rescue Guinevere. They represent different ways of undertaking the adventure. While Lancelot follows Love, Gauvain is associated with Reason. This is why they take different paths to save the queen, although just one of them will be successful. Write an essay about Lancelot’s conception of love in this book: a) Does Lancelot behave according to social conventions? b) Write at least one example justifying your answer. You might want to reflect about the implications of a love un/limited by social rules in your conclusion.

 

I was captivated by this story, although it had a rather confusing start because there were very few names used, mainly just a “knight” or a “maiden”. Finally, as I began to realize the Knight of the Cart was indeed Lancelot, I observed his behaviors more closely. He takes on a hero’s journey to save the Queen. He encounters many obstacles, but his heart remains true to the woman he has fallen in love with, so he fights valiantly, with no regard for his own life, and conquers each impediment in his way, whether it be treacherous terrain, knights bent on jousting and impeding his way into the land from which no one returns, or maidens beseeching him to escort them or lay with them. He agrees to every request of him, intent on keeping each promise, regardless of the internal harm and dismay it causes him, because he learns more about his journey to save the Queen or he gains food or shelter.

I believe he does behave according to social conventions and to the knight’s code of chivalry for making and keeping promises that he knows may inflict harm upon him to further his hero’s journey and save his love. He even has mercy on the son who enslaved the Queen.

I’ve never read fully the story of Lancelot and Guinevere until now, and I always felt empathy for King Arthur, as his lady love and dear friend have betrayed him. However, this version of the story, this hero’s journey, shows Lancelot’s true character and his undying love for the Queen. He faces death repeatedly and will not be swayed by any threats or warnings. Then, Guinevere, thinking Lancelot is dead, is beside herself, grieving, because she believes her behavior toward the one who loves her has caused him his death. Then he nearly kills himself, thinking his love, Guinevere, is dead. That part strongly reminds me of Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. I now see why the story of Lancelot and Guinevere is a true love story, especially considering that King Arthur sent his wife off to this land, not knowing if he would ever see here again. I recognize that he was bound to keep his promise to Kay, but Kay was not well-equipped to save his wife, and it was his nephew that had to speak up, suggesting that they should go after her.

I know the moral is love over reason. Lancelot is fearless, and often in a dreamlike state, unaware of the danger he is in, because of his intense love for Guinevere. I admire that. However, I don’t know that reason should be overruled completely, as is implied by the failure of Gauvain, King Arthur’s nephew. Reason has its place, but I suppose not in matters of the heart.

Grimm’s Fairy Tales and Their Relation to Classic Mythology

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This post was inspired by reading Grimm’s Fairy Tales for my Fantasy and Science Fiction: The Human Mind, Our Modern World MOOC. We will be encouraged each week to write a piece no longer than 320 words(!) highlighting a theme or otherwise enriching the minds of our fellow “intelligent, attentive” peers. Thus, the piece must be boiled down to its essence, and every word must count. As such, I have omitted summaries unless necessary, and it is understood that the reader has a knowledge of Grimm’s Fairy Tales, as illustrated by Walter Crane. Enjoy!

 

The Wolf and the Seven Little Goats is a prime example of why fairy tales continue to fascinate us. These tales are rich with symbolism and echo mythological constructs.  Six of the seven little kids were swallowed whole by the wolf, only to be cut out by the mother, after which they leapt out, unharmed. This is reminiscent of the origin story for the Greek gods, which states that Kronos, a Titan, feared being overthrown by his children, so he swallowed them whole. Zeus emerged from Kronos and freed his siblings, and then Zeus defeated Kronos, and the Olympians defeated the Titans. In this regard, we can view the wolf as a father figure, as the mother conspires with her seventh child how to free the other children. The children then overtake the wolf when he falls into the water, drowning with the weight of the stones in his belly. This act also signifies a transition of power as the wolf is no longer feared or holds power over  the people. In essence, the kids are now in power. The transition of son overtaking father and the transition of power are deeply laden in mythology, as suggested by Joseph Campbell, an expert in the field and author of The Power of Myth, which looks at the psychological significance of myths that pervade every society.

These stories stay with us as universal constant, part of our group consciousness, because they put into words our fears and hopes.  The Grimm brothers exemplify the oral mythological tradition by their use of symbolism in numbers, the forest as a mysterious and dangerous place, and food for survival (swallowing of the kids, as well as the mother goat seeking food in the forest), just to name a few. Symbolism is a key to the transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next.

 

Works Cited

The World of Myth, an anthology, by David Adams Leeming
The Power of Myth with Bill Moyers by Joseph Campbell (originally produced in a series of interviews)
Signs and Symbols, An Illustrated Guide to Their Origins and Meanings, published by DK Publishing in 2008 (no author listed)

Magic in Islam: Prophets versus Sorcerers

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This unit in my MOOC, Magic in the Middle Ages, focused on magic in Islam and how it was viewed. Because I come from a similar but different religious background, much of the texts were new to me. When I first read the assignment, I didn’t think I would have anything to say – certainly not anything of value. However, as it always happens, I explored the given text and expanded my ideas, and I came up with a rather interesting conclusion. If you would like to understand the references given, you will need to access the link provided and read the brief text to formulate your own opinions and perhaps challenge mine.

 

In this link you will find a passage on magic from the Muqaddima (the Introduction) by the famous historian Ibn Khaldūn (732-784/1332-1382). This passage is available in a great variety of translations. For English, we recommend Rosenthal’s translation. The passage is part of chapter 6.27. Ibn Khaldūn, The Muqaddimah. An Introduction to History, trans. by F. Rosenthal, Princeton University Press, 1967 (1st ed. 1958), vol. 3, p. 156 and sqq.

Read the following passages:

paragraphs 1-2

paragraph 5-13, from ‘Let us present’ to ‘All this comes from (sorcerers and sorcery).

Read the selected passage and answer the question:

What is the difference between prophets and sorcerers in this particular field? And what is the difference between their practices?

According to this particular passage, the potentiality of souls is present, but unique, in every individual. Some are destined to be prophets, receiving information and practicing their divination through God. Others have the potentiality to be sorcerers, but this does not mean they will act on it, only that it is a quality of their soul, presumably over which they have no direct source of control. However, if they choose to exercise this innate power, then they rely on insights from objects or demons, rather than God. Their powers are three-fold: First, the most powerful is by pure mental power that they exercise their practices. The second is brought about by the use of talismans and communication with celestial objects or the properties of numbers (like geomancy, it seems). The third power is through influence of the imagination of others, which is perceived to be “unreal” unlike the first two types of powers. The prophets’ practices are not specific in these passages, but I read further and discovered that prophets’ powers can be the same as a sorcerer’s powers, like Moses’ “miracles”, which he performed as evidence of his prophecy, but was something “bragged about” and attributed to sorcerers.

The main difference, as far as I can tell, is that the prophets’ practices came from a divine source: the same end result for either type of soul, just a different means to get there. It is the exact opposite of “the ends justify the means”. I agree that there is a clear distinction between light and dark, white and black magic, us versus them, depending on your perspective, particularly if you come at it from a religious viewpoint. Even though prophets and sorcerers achieve the same ends, it is clear that sorcerers are thought of as “evil” by their counterparts, and I think this is due to fear of the unknown and placing a higher value on the religion of that time and place. Obviously, if the potentiality of souls in unique and innate in every individual, they are constrained to their destiny from birth and apparently, it cannot be changed. Thus, the prophets are sorcerers have the same powers and practices, and the ones claiming that sorcerers are evil are the ones that write the books, the believers in that religion, who see the sorcerers as “non-believers”. The people in power write the books and keep the histories and so are always biased by their opinions. Sorcerers are not necessarily evil, but where are the writings from their perspective, speaking on their behalf, defending their ideas and practices?